Training and Development in Pharmaceutical

PLANT LAYOUT TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

	1. Process charts    (i) Operations Process Charts    (ii) Flow process Chart 11. Process Flow Diagrams 111. Machine data cards IV. Visualization of Layout     (i) Two-dimensional plan or Templates     (ii) Three-dimensional Plan or machine models
	PLANT LOCATION
	Introduction The performance of an enterprise is considerably affected by its location. The location of an industry is as important as the choice is for the location of a business or a shop in a city or locality. Unscientific and unplanned industrialization is harmful not only to the industrial unit but also to the social and economic structure of the country as a whole. Nearly sixty years before, much importance was not given to the selection of appropriate location and the decisions in this regard were mainly governed by the individual preferences of the entrepreneurs and social customs. This resulted in failure of any organization which otherwise could have been successful. Government also with the objective of establishing socialistic pattern of society became instrument all in the selection of site for various industries in undeveloped areas by providing various investment benefits and other incentives. All this encouraged a large number of industrialists to follow a more scientific an logical approach towards the selection of site for establishing their industries. The degree of significance for the selection of location for any enterprise mainly depends on its size and nature. Sometimes, the nature of the product itself suggest some suitable location. A small scale industry mainly selects the site where in accordance with its capacity the local market for the product is available. It can easily shift to other place when there is any change in the market. But for large scales industries requiring huge amount of investment there are many considerations other than the local demand int the selection of proper plant location. These plants cannot be easily shifted to other place and an error of judgment in the selection of site can be very expensive to the organization.

ANALYSIS BASED ON QUANTITATIVE FACTORS

	(a) Comparative/Least Cost Center Analysis: This simple type of analysis is appropriate where the location problem concerns the placement of a single plant. There can be two approaches, namely (i) Comparative cost chart (ii) Least cost centre analysis
	MEANING OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
	Production management, alternatively referred to as manufacturing management, is required for transforming raw materials and partly, fabricated materials into finished products. Production management does not imply management of productive process alone, but it covers all there activities which go into the making of production. To make production a concrete reality, one ,must pay heed to the factors of production like land, labour, capital and organization, or to speak in the language of business, materials, men, money, machines and methods. Production management thus calls for the work of planning and control pertaining to each of these factors of production. Production management does not involve a mechanical assemblage of relevant factors. In contrast to mere transformation of raw materials into finished products, it aims at transmuting and permuting resources of higher productivity so that the greatest outputs are obtained from the least inputs. With its end in views, production management embraces the productive process too and involves planning, directing and controlling operations till their successful completion. Quality, quantity, cost and time of production have an important bearing on productivity of the manufacturing enterprise. Accordingly, it is the task of production management to see that effective utilization of resources is made, time is shortened, wastes and scrapings are avoided, and harmonious working is made to prevail in the plant. For effective managerial performance, the work of production department is required to be organized on sound lines. All the principles and practices of organizing are to be applied in building a sound structure for improving the result of production management. Successful production management is not practicable without the existence of an appropriate organization structure. Consequently, managerial efforts are to be directed in designing an organization structure that conforms to the needs of the product, size of the enterprise and availability of production facilities. Organizing for production may be conceived in broader sense to include some aspects of works engineering or works organization like plant layout and factory building. The problems of production management differ form case to case and are mainly related to the system of production. There are several systems of production which determine the magnitude of production work and the problems to be tackled in manufacturing operations. Hence, a familiarity with the different systems of production is required for understanding the intricacies of production management. Of course, the system of production is dictated in a particular case by the volume of sales and the nature of product. The quantity to be produced is nothing but an answer to the question of 'what can be sold”. In the ultimate analysis, therefore, sales are the regulator of a system of production. The management of transformation process of inputs into output is the essence of production management. In present competitive world the production process in every enterprise needs some effective and scientific planning as well as proper control. Thus production management can be defined as “Management which by scientific planning and regulation sets into motion the part of an enterprise to which it has been entrusted the task of actual transformation of inputs into output”. In the words of Mr. E.L. Brech, “Production Management then becomes the process of effectively planning and regulating the operations of that part of an enterprise which is responsible for the actual transformation of materials into finished products”. This definition appears to be incomplete as it does not include the human factors involved in a production process. It lays stress only on the materialistic features. In broader sense, production management actually deals with decision making related to production processes, so that the resulting goods and services are produced in accordance with the quantitative specifications and demand schedule with minimum cost. To attain these objectives the two main activities of Production Management are the Design and Control of production systems. In production management effective planning and control are essential. In the absence of effective planning and regulation of any production activity the goals cannot be achieved, the customers may not be satisfied and ultimately certain activities may be closed which may lead to social evils.
	MEASUREMENT OF WORK
	In an engineering sense efficiency can be simply stated as the ratio of useful energy obtained to energy applied. We can all understand that. Put succinctly, that is what is really meant by efficiency of production, but the difficulty is to see the relationship between input and output of production, or to measure performance. Which brings us right to the heart of the problem of efficiency of production: how to measure performances. There is usually some difficulty about measuring the comparative performance of several departments in a Company or different companies. If two factories are turning out the same product which is measured in tons or feet, then overall cost per ton or per foot is a measure of performance which can be obtained readily and used for comparison. But how does one compare the costs or efficiency of two factories or department s making dissimilar products ? Cost per ton or unit is no good. As between two different firms, only the percentage net profit is any measure, and that is affected by the type of market and selling cost which are not production costs. And between different departments in the same firm there would seem to be, at first sight, no measure of efficiency on a common and therefore comparable basis. If, however, the amount of “effort” (or cost-material, labour and overhead services) which should have been sued to make a given quantity of a product is known and also the amount actually used, then surely the correct amount as a proportion of the actual amount is a measure of performance of efficiency. It is in reality an efficiency formula again, output over input. The real value of output, in effort, hours or s.d., is the amount of cost which goes out of the factory or department in a useful form, i.e., it does not include all wastage and excess costs, avoidable, and of no benefit to customer or company. And input is the total of all effort and costs absorbed. Including excess costs.

ORGANIZATION OF PRODUCTION PLANNING DEPARTMENT

	The work of a Production Planning Department generally falls into three sections, dealing with three stages of the sequence of operations. They are: i) Compiling and recording facts. ii) Developing plans. iii) Putting plans into operation and controlling results. In the first stage and section, information is gathered together, recorded and filed in a way which is suitable for use by planners, and so that reference to it is easy and rapid. The information is of three kinds, relating to: a) Customers' orders and requirements; b) Stocks of materials and components; c) Plant available, capacities, operations and times. Unless the organization is of such a size that each kind of information is dealt with in a separate section, it is advisable for all of it to be handled by one section under the supervision of a person skill din the work. Its organization is mainly a problem of filing and entering-up figures or records form vouchers, i.e., transferring information and striking balances. It can usually be staffed with Juniors, female, or relatively unskilled labour, but must be carefully supervised and checked by very reliable people. The absolute accuracy and therefore double checking required in banks is not essential, but inaccuracies can be troublesome and costly. The second stage and section comprises the vital part of planning. It is her that the effectiveness or indifference of results is ensured. And where the ability to scheme, think ahead and take all factors into account is so essential. It is a job mainly done on paper,juggling as it were with figures and charts. Sales budgets must be broken down into or integrated with long-term production plans, factory and departmental plans formulated, and weekly or daily or even hour-by-hour loads prepared. In small factories a few simple charts or schedules suffice, but in very large organizations a vast amount of detailed information, in the form of masses of figures, flows into the section, and must be rapidly and regularly collated and reissue for action. Extreme tidiness is essential, and if those concerned are not to be bogged down by a continuous stream of insistent inquiries demanding attention, much of the work must so be organised as to be dealt with in a routine manner by juniors. The third stage consists of translating the plans into instructions and can be mainly of a clerical nature. In practice, however, it is at this stage that a certain amount of decentralization is advisable, and the hour-by-hour machine or operation loading and the actual issue of jobs to operators is done either in or adjacent to the forman's office, or in a shop office. Progress work, that is, checking performance against plans and reporting results (with recommendations for corrective action and requests for urgent actions) to foremen or other supervisors, which is really an aspect of control, is frequently carried out form the same of and even by the same persons. The complexity of an organization structure for production planning depe4nds on the type of industry or manufacture rather than its scale. In mass-production and continuous-process manufacture, production planning consist of balancing the flow of materials (or components) from outside or component manufacturing departments, with consumption by the factory or assembly departments. Particularly is this so in the automobile or similar industries, where a good deal of preliminary work on materials in subcontracted, no large stocks of materials are kept (or could be for the immense consumption rate) and a small interruption to production affects a large part of the factory and is very expensive. In those factories engaged on batch production of partly standardized products there is the added complexity of setting-up (time and cost), varying batch sizes, and the synchronization of finishing dates for parts and sub assemblies when batches vary so much. It is predominantly a question of continual adjustment in order to maintain balanced loads on departments and to correct for unforeseen delays. When the product is designed to customers' requirements, the total process time is increased by the time required for design or preparation for each order, and consequently the period over which planning must extend is greater, making the problem more complex. Production planning is most complex when the product is mainly to customers' requirements, but is designed to incorporate many standard parts kept in stock. When the number of orders exceeds something like 50 per week, the amount of information to be handled becomes large and the department correspondingly so.
	PLANNING METHODS
	The purpose of production order is to provide information about various operations involved in a production process. Once a production order is formulated, there arises the necessity to determine that when and where each operation is to be done. The reasons in that the operations described in a production order may be executed in several ways to get the final product and one may like to use a production strategy which makes most effective use of an, machine and material in the system. The best strategy is planned through the methods of Routing and Scheduling. Thus scheduling and routing is the final stage in production planning and have the following objectives: (i) to prescribe where and by whom each operation necessary to manufacture a product is to be executed. This is known as routing. (ii) the establishment of times at which to begin and/or complete each even or operation. This is termed as scheduling.

PLANT LAYOUT

Layout problems are fundamental to every type of organization/enterprise and are experienced in all kinds of undertakings. Housewife must arrange her kitchen, retailer must arrange his counters and display the items in such a manner which facilitates movement and attract the attention of customers, office management positions the desks, tables and other equipment in such a way that it facilitates the flow of work. The manufacturing organizations must arrange their facilities, not only the department within the factory but also the plant, stores and services so as to achieve smooth flow of products. The adequacy of layout affects the efficiency of subsequent operations. It is an important perquisite for efficient operations and also has a great deal in common with many of the problems. The simplest of situations with comparatively fewer items to arrange have many alternatives available. Import the layout decisions were based merely on intuition, experience, judgment and some sort of improvisation but with increase in the complexities of organizations the layout problems are solved scientifically. Once a decision about location of the plant has been taken, next important problem before the management is to plan suitable layout for the plant. Efficiency and performance of good machines and sturdy building depend to a great extent on the layout of a plant. Plat layout is the method of allocating machines and equipment, various production processes and other necessary services involved in transformation process of a product with the available space of the factory so as to perform various operations in the most efficient and convenient manner providing output of high quality and minimum cost. In the words of James Lundy, “layout identically involves the location of space and the arrangement of equipment in such a manner that overall operating costs are minimized.” Alternately, plant layout is an effort to arrange machines and equipment, and other services within a predesigned building ensuring steady, smooth and economical flow of material. Planning the layout of a plant is a continuous process as there are always chances of making improvements over the existing arrangement specially with shifts in the policies of management of techniques of production. The disposition of the various parts of a plant alongwith all the equipment used is known as plant layout. It should be so designed that the plant functions most effectively. Layout problems are common to all kinds of organization. A retailer must arrange his counter, display of items etc., office management must position desks, tables etc. in such a way that it facilitates the flow of work. A manufacturing organization must position its machinery and other equipment so as to achieve smooth flow of products through their factories. A good layout results in comforts convenience, safety, efficiency, Compactness and profits. A poor layout results in congestion, waste, frustration and inefficiency. Thus after plant location the proper design of plant layout is most significant for smooth functioning and success of the organization.

Training And Development hrm project finalllllllllllll

LEVELS OF CHANGE LEADERSHIP SKILLS

Approach to Forecasting

There are some approach to forecasting.
1. Carefully consider the objectives of forecasting short period or long period market share or industry as a whole.
2. Select appropriate method of forecasting.
3. Identify the variable which effect the demand of the product.
4. Collect relevant data to represent the variables.
5. Use statistical techniques and decide the most probable relationship between the dependent and independent variables.
6. Prepare the forecast and interpret the results.
7. Forecasts must be revised in case any improved information is available.
8. Forecasts any be made either in unit or in amount of sales. Further it may be made in terms of product groups an then divided into individual products on the basis of past percentages.
9. Forecasts may firstly be made on annual basis and then divided month-wise or week-wise on the basis of available past data.
10. To divide month-wise demand of new product, if the data of other firms are available then these data should be used otherwise a survey relating to problem should be conducted . This method can be used to forecast product-wise sales.

Knowledge of the goods of fundamentals

A salesman may have an exceptional personality but he will be at a handicap if he neglects this second salesmanship fundamental of acquiring a complete and useful knowledge of the goods he is required to sell.

A thorough knowledge of the goods on the part of the salesman will help him increase the sales, obtain larger orders and render better service to his customer. Accurate knowledge of the proposition will help him to make specific statements instead of vague or general one. He will acquire confidence in himself and be able to induce customers to spend more.

Besides, a salesman without technical knowledge becomes a danger to the customer. He has to substitute guesswork for knowledge and can at the most repeat like a parrot the claims made by the manufacturer of his product. Lack of technical knowledge of the goods may put him in a humiliating position when dealing with the type of customer who has a thirst for knowledge. The suspicious type of customer would mistake his evasiveness for deceit. Naturally, he cannot explain something to a prospective customer which he himself does not understand. To be specific, he must know the sales facts.

If the salesman acquires product knowledge, he will be able to answer questions raised by his customers. Even a single question unanswered is sufficient to create a doubt in the mind of his customer. Besides, with such knowledge he will find it easier to provide his customer with goods that will suit him. He will also be able to make the proper appeal to the appropriate buying motives and will never be at a loss for powerful talking points.

The oft-repeated expression, a good salesman can sell anything does not mean that technical knowledge is not required by a good salesman. It merely means that a good salesman can easily adapt himself to the selling of different types of articles by speedily obtaining the necessary technical knowledge. This is due to his practical experience and thorough knowledge of the principles of salesmanship.

Selling Points or Talking Points of knowledge

A selling point is an advantage an article possesses which if emphasized is likely to induce the customer into making the purchase. A selling point when included in the sales talk is referred to as a talking point.

A systematic and thorough study of the goods will provide a number of such advantages or selling points or talking points. The hidden object of this investigation as to details about the goods is really to discover selling points. However, selling points must be used discriminately and tactfully. Sales talk should not be a mere statement of the obvious and known facts nor should it be an enumeration of selling points. The latter should be used with a view to appeal to the particular buying motive of he customer.

The selling points which are the commonest in use of attractiveness of the package, low price, special selling terms, durability, latest design, about saving, ease of use and comfort. These are linked with buying motives and the salesman should make an analysis of the goods with a view to ascertain the selling points that would carry the most weight in the sales talk and use the appropriate ones.

Improving the Personality

The nature of one's personality depends to a certain extent on heredity and environment. Perhaps it is not possible to change the “types” of one's personality from subjective but person can, for example, increase his knowledge, cultivate his voice and speech, improve his manners and mannerisms, dress in good taste and develop certain attributes. A person may not possess all the qualities that are present in the best salesman but he can strive to compensate for those that are lacking.

It cannot be denied that personality can be improved by conscientious efforts. The modern tendency amongst sales managers is that they realise the possibility of developing the sales personality of the salesman by proper management procedure. Sales Managers today believe that firing a salesman is generally an unnecessary expense. This is because the ability to sell as well as the development of selling poise can be developed whereas the undesirable weaknesses of character difficult to remove are discernible before the salesman is employed.

Thus a salesman should strive to improve his personality for advancement in the profession. Knowledge of the goods, of the channels of distribution and of the customer are no doubt very necessary to the salesman but the power and driving force which makes the machine move in selling is the salesman's “PERSONALITY”.

                  

Type of Product Knowledge Required

Goods may be generally classified into (1) necessity, (2) utility, and (3) luxury articles. Articles which are necessary for life generally sell on the basis of quality and price.

                                          The selling of these articles is generally mechanical although there is considerable competition. The main selling points would be superior quality and low price. Articles which are utility articles are sold because of their usefulness. The typewriter is preferred to the ordinary methods of writing with a fountainpen because of its greater usefulness. The main selling point in case of luxury articles is fashion. This is because purchasers of luxury articles are generally well-off and are not worried about the price.

The kind of knowledge to be required by a salesman may also be classified into (1) the tangible qualities of his goods, (2) the intangible qualities and (3) the behaviour of the goods in use. Tangible qualities are details about the goods which can easily be proved. For example, Pure Wool, Fast Colour and Guaranteed shrinkage, hundred one percent are examples of tangible qualities. These are statement of facts which can be proved by a physical test and are very convincing. Intangible qualities are facts which cannot be easily proved, e.g. Latest style and Fashionable Colour. Speciality articles are to a large extent sold because of their utility and behaviour in use. A distinctive design or skilled workmanship is a good selling point but if the speciality article does not enjoy the advantage of utility it is not likely to be bought. A motor-car may have a distinctive design but will not be purchased if it does not run. Therefore a study of the uses and attractive features of the goods is necessary to emphasize them in the sales talk.

The degree or extent of the knowledge required to a salesman depends on whether he is a speciality salesman selling expensive goods or a salesman selling low-priced consumer goods. The former must become a real authority on the article he sells. He will be at an advantage if he acquires knowledge as to the history of the firm manufacturing the products he is required to sell. This will enable him to converse with the older buyers who have been dealing with the firm for a number of years and like to speak about the past. It will also give him a felling of belonging to the organisation. This will also inculcate in him loyalty to the organisation.

The salesman should acquire information as to the policies behind the product as these are reflected by the product. He should also ascertain whether the materials used in the manufacture are the best available or whether they are merely of the best value at the price charged. Whether labour is satisfied or not may also be reflected in the goods in the form of superior or indifferent workmanship.

If the lighting and working conditions in the factory are satisfactory, the manufactured product would be more efficient and accurate. The financial position of the organisation should be known to him as this will enable him to answer questions as to its solvency and permanent foundation. Buyers often hesitate to buy from an organisation which has not acquired a reputation of stability because they feel that deliveries may not be made in accordance with the contract. Wholesalers and retailers also do not want to push and create a demand for a product and then find the article withdrawn from the market through the failure of the manufacturer. Salesmen and sales organisations have really two things to sell-the product and the company behind it-and both must be sold together. Thus the salesman must sell not only the product but also the company by emphasising its prestige, reliability, friendliness, achievements, loan standing, accessibility and experience.

Forecasting Demand for New Products

 In forecasting the future sales of existing old products, the past experiences and informations may be considered, but for new products such facilities are not available.

The work of forecasting sales of new products, this is not an easy job. However, the following possible 

approaches to the problem of forecasting demand for new products may be suggested:

1. Project the demand for the new product as on substitute of some existing products and services.

2. Project the future trend of demand for new product with the help of existing old products similar to the new product.

3. Estimate the demand by making direct enquiries from the ultimate purchasers regarding their opinion and preferences about the new product.

4. Estimate the sales for new product on the basis of the opinion and advice of sales agents.

5. Distribute the new product to the pubic as a sample and estimate the likely demand.

6. Analyse the general trend of market through market research and decide the expected quantity for new product which can be sold.

Criteria of a Good Forecasting Method

Sales forecasting is really an art. We have already seen that there are various methods to forecast the sales.

It is course difficult to state which of the methods is best. The suitability of the method depends of nature of manufactured product, available time, wealth and energy, necessary amount of accuracy etc. of an enterprise. However, in general, a good forecasting method possesses the qualifications as below: (1) Accuracy: Various important plants are prepared on the basis of forecasts. In case of wrong forecasting, the business may be in trouble and suffer heavy losses. Hence it is necessary to have such forecasting system which amounts to maximum accuracy. (2) Simplicity: Forecasting method should be as simple as possible. If it is difficult or technical then the person, who is engaged in forecasting job, will not do his job properly and there will be chances always for mistake. Some informations may also require to the be collected from outsiders. If he method is complex or difficult then they may not be able to reply reasonably and accurately. (3) Availability: The objects and scope of forecasting should be as such as the relevant informations are collected immediately with reasonable accuracy. (4) Stability: The data of forecasting must be such wherein the future changes are expected to be minimum and are reliable for planning. (5) Economy: Costs must be weighed against the importance of the forecast to the operations of the business. (6) Utility: The forecasting techniques must be easily understandable and reliable to the management.

CASE STUDIES IN SALES MANAGEMENT

	FOR MARKETING its products to relevant segments of consumers, an organization has to communicate with these consumers. The channel of communication may be impersonal (e.g., advertisements) or personal (e.g. Salesmen). To handle personal communications with consumers, most organization employ a sales force. The primary responsibility of the sales force is to promote the organization's products, but it may also be used to distribute the product, service the product and gather market intelligence. Sales management is concerned with the planning, direction and control of sales force's activities. Sales management is an important activity in the Indian marketing system where commercial firms as well as non-commercial organizations employ substantial field forces to promote and distribute products (or services); to service and assist prospects, clients, and middlemen; to report on consumer preferences and competitive activity, etc. With the increasing economic and social pressure to enter rural markets, The importance of sales management is increasing; it is not possible for manufacturers to rely entirely on the trade for developing the rural markets. The increasing diversity of our industrial structure is also creating a need for more sophisticated methods of sales management. Special selling skills are required in high technology industries, chemical intermediate industries, decentralized sector and small-scale units, social programmes, etc.
	DUTIES OF THE SALES MANAGER
	The sales manager holds a unique position in the sales organisation. He plans, organises, directs, staffs and coordinates the whole of the sales organisation. There are several connotations of the sales manager like sales executive, sales director, marketing manager, marketing executive, etc. He is the person who steers the wheels of sales organisation. His status and power depends on the size of the organisation in his charge. In small firms the general manager or managing director performs the duties of the sales manager. But in big manufacturing firms there usually a sales manger. Here the sales manager. Here the sales manager is appointed by the top management and he is responsible to them. In giant sized companies for some territories and/or products sales managers are appointed. Whatever the position of the sales manager, he is the guiding and driving force of the sales organisation.
	FUNDAMENTALS OF SUCCESSFUL SELLING
	In every game or competitive sport there are certain principles which have to be learnt and practiced. For example, a professional boxer has to spend a number of hours each day on exercises, like skipping, running, punchbag-practice, etc. to maintain his health and improve his skill. Even after a professional boxer attains the championship standard, he still has to go through his training programme regularly as before and is assisted by his coach during and after every practice about so that errors not be repeated. There is an analogy between competitive sports and salesmanship. As in competitive sports so in salesmanship there are certain principles which have to be mastered. Some fundamentals in selling must be learnt and mastered for best results. The new and inexperienced salesman, like the boxer, must first study and learn what the fundamentals are and try to put them in practice. An intelligent salesman combines the study and actual practice of these fundamentals by intelligent analysis and improvement of defects. In course of time, the use of the important fundamentals becomes a habit for the salesman.
	INTRODUCTION
	Organisation, quite simply defined, is the process of assigning responsibilities and activities to the various members of the work group in accordance with the plans designed to achieve the objectives established. Its aim is to produce the mos efficient and effective effort on the part of both the individual group members and the group as a whole toward the common goals. In the planning process, objectives have been established, resources have been allocated, and an action program for achieving these objectives with the resources available has been developed. The organisation process begins when we start to translate action programmes into specific responsibilities assigned to individuals. Since, in the planning process, objectives have been established, the action to be taken broadly defined, and price tags and timetables attached to those actions, organization in its simplest from consists in assigning the objectives, actions, price tags, and timetables to the appropriate individuals and securing their understanding and acceptance.
	METHODS OF ACQUIRING PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE
	The average salesman in a retail organisation is required to handle a very large number of articles and it is very difficult for him to know the exact details of the materials used in the manufacture as well s regarding the method of manufacture of each article. Therefore, manufacturers today assist the retail salesmen in many ways with a view to acquiring the desired knowledge about their manufacture. Some manufacturers have now introduced the novel idea of printing a brief selling description on the package with a few selling points so that even the least experienced salesman can say something definite to his customer by glancing at the package. Other manufacturer print on the back of counter display cards a few useful selling points so that the salesman may glance at these points and thus use them as selling points in his sales talk. Salesmen can a also be induced to acquire greater knowledge about their goods by means of contests, e.g. By pitting one division of a department against another. A salesman should take advantage of all the facilities he may be permitted in this regard.
	QUASAR CORPORATION (A)
	Evolving a System for Salesmen's Remuneration IN FEBRUARY 1971 the Divisional Manager of the Consumer Durables (C.D.) Division of Quasar Corporation was pondering over many issues that had gained considerable importance of late. Some of these issues related to certain types of conflicts that were coming to the fore amongst the divisional salesmen, the expanding network of dealers and anew category of supervisory staff (called Sales Organisers) ; also involved was the aspect of salesmen's remuneration.
	SALES FORECASTING
	In the field of production and manufacture and manufacturing organisations the most burning problem of today is not the problem of the production but that of sale. It attaches much importance for an enterprise to forecast the sales so that the production is neither more nor less to that of demand made by customers. Sales forecasting has assumed dynamic importance mainly in the industries where the problem of large scale production, and mass distribution have to be encountered. To know what a business will do, we must know its future sales, which means that we must have forecast, without them, both short and long range planning rests on foundation much less substantial than sand.
	SELECTION OF SALESMEN
	Selection involves three basic aspects, namely, consideration of- (1) the number of salesman required (2) the qualities required in the salesman (3) the selection procedure to be adopted
	TRAINING OF SALESMEN
	The old belief, that still persists in certain quarters, is that the ability to get along with people and physical personality are all important, and that the selling ability is something intangible which a person may or may not have. Fortunately, progresive sales executives realise that, provided basic characteristics are present, salesmen are not born but made. This has resulted in the application of scientific management techniques in developing salesmen, the emphasis being placed on (1) adequate selection procedures, (2) appropriate training and (3) sufficient supervision. Selection is important even from the training aspect as it would be a waste of good money to train bad material. The training aspect is thus connected with recruiting and selecting salesmen.

Understanding Negotiations

Negotiations are a means of resolving differences between people when imposed settlements are not possible. And because so much of our work and personal lives involve resolving differences, the ability to negotiate effectively is an essential life skill. Almost everything we do involves some kind of negotiation. If you think about it, you’ll realize that you negotiate all the time, every day. You negotiated to get your new job and a raise. You negotiated with coworkers about where to hold your last meeting. You negotiated with your spouse and other loved ones about where to take a vacation. When we buy and sell things, sell ideas, and solve problems that involve others, negotiation gets us what we want. Negotiation is a way to get one’s fair share, whether it’s selling a proposal to your boss, settling a labor dispute, buying real estate, or getting that new car. Most Americans are uncomfortable with negotiations (remember the last time you bought a new car?). This may be the consequence of bad experiences or of feeling unprepared to do them well. Ours, unlike some others in the world, is a haggle-free culture. And most Americans seem to prefer it that way. As evidence, consider the customer response to Saturn Corporation’s introduction of its no-haggle sales policy: Here’s the car, here’s the price. People loved it. You can learn to be a good negotiator if: You know what you want and what you are willing to give up. You know (or have a good idea) what the other side wants and what it is willing to give up. You come to the table with a ‘‘how can we both win’’ attitude. You are skilled in problem solving, listening, basic conflict management, and the uses of tactics and strategies in negotiating.

Analysis of Demat Account and Online Trading

Orgnisational Behaviour topics

Essentials of Supply Chain Management

Michael Hugos, Michael H. Hugos, Michael H. Hugos, “Essentials of Supply Chain Management”
W,.ey | 2002 | ISBN: 0471235172 | 256 pages | File type: PDF | 1,5 mb

Streamlining supply chain efficiency to maximize profitability
This practical guide describes how the supply chain operates and discusses the issues and techniques that are relevant for companies seeking to improve the management of their supply chains. Organized using the features of the Essentials series, this easy-to-use guide contains tips and techniques for maximizing supply chain innovation strategies, as well as real-world examples developed from working with companies such as Johnson Wax, Starbucks, Borg-Warner, and Premier Health Care. Supply chain expert Michael Hugos analyzes the components of a well designed and managed supply chain, explains the metrics involved in measuring performance, and presents a pragmatic approach to designing and building supply chain systems.

Michael Hugos (Chicago, IL) is the Chief Information Officer of Network Services Company, a $6.8 Billion distribution organization serving customers throughout North America. He has extensive experience in distribution, logistics, and applying technology to meet the challenges of supply chain management. He holds an mbA from Northwestern Universitys Kellogg School of Management.

Download links:
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Managerial Accounting Ch15

Managerial Accounting Ch14

Managerial Accounting Ch13

Managerial Accounting Ch12

Managerial Accounting Ch11

Managerial Accounting Ch10

Managerial Accounting Ch09

Managerial Accounting Ch08

Managerial Accounting Ch07 by Needles,  Chapter Outline

Managerial Accounting Ch06 by Needles, Chapter Outline

Managerial Accounting Ch05 by Needles, Chapter Outline

Managerial Accounting Ch04 by Needles, Chapter Outline

Managerial Accounting Ch03 by Needles, Chapter Outline

Managerial Accounting Ch02 by Needles, Chapter Outline

Managerial Accounting Ch01 by Needles, Chapter Outline

Global Business: Chapter 05 by Dr. Mike W. Peng

Introductory Operations Management: Lecture 3 - Forecasting

Operations Management, Forecasting, MBA lecture notes

Management Accounting (Module1)

Management Accounting

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

If motivation is driven by the existence of unsatisfied needs, then it is worthwhile for a manager to understand which needs are the more important for individual employees. In this regard, Abraham Maslow developed a model in which basic, low-level needs such as physiological requirements and safety must be satisfied before higher-level needs such as self-fulfillment are pursued. In this hierarchical model, when a need is mostly satisfied it no longer motivates and the next higher need takes its place. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is shown in the following diagram:

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Self-Actualization

Esteem Needs

Social Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

Physiological Needs

Physiological needs are those required to sustain life, such as:

• air
• water
• nourishment
• sleep

According to Maslow's theory, if such needs are not satisfied then one's motivation will arise from the quest to satisfy them. Higher needs such as social needs and esteem are not felt until one has met the needs basic to one's bodily functioning.

Safety

Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to safety and security in order to be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by:

• Living in a safe area
• Medical insurance
• Job security
• Financial reserves

According to Maslow's hierarchy, if a person feels that he or she is in harm's way, higher needs will not receive much attention.

Social Needs

Once a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher level needs become important, the first of which are social needs. Social needs are those related to interaction with other people and may include:

• Need for friends
• Need for belonging
• Need to give and receive love

Esteem

Once a person feels a sense of "belonging", the need to feel important arises. Esteem needs may be classified as internal or external. Internal esteem needs are those related to self-esteem such as self respect and achievement. External esteem needs are those such as social status and recognition. Some esteem needs are:

• Self-respect
• Achievement
• Attention
• Recognition
• Reputation

Maslow later refined his model to include a level between esteem needs and self-actualization: the need for knowledge and aesthetics.

Self-Actualization

Self-actualization is the summit of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It is the quest of reaching one's full potential as a person. Unlike lower level needs, this need is never fully satisfied; as one grows psychologically there are always new opportunities to continue to grow.
Self-actualized people tend to have needs such as:

• Truth
• Justice
• Wisdom
• Meaning

Self-actualized persons have frequent occurrences of peak experiences, which are energized moments of profound happiness and harmony. According to Maslow, only a small percentage of the population reaches the level of self-actualization.

Implications for Management

If Maslow's theory holds, there are some important implications for management. There are opportunities to motivate employees through management style, job design, company events, and compensation packages, some examples of which follow:

• Physiological needs: Provide lunch breaks, rest breaks, and wages that are sufficient to purchase the essentials of life.
• Safety Needs: Provide a safe working environment, retirement benefits, and job security.
• Social Needs: Create a sense of community via team-based projects and social events.
• Esteem Needs: Recognize achievements to make employees feel appreciated and valued. Offer job titles that convey the importance of the position.
• Self-Actualization: Provide employees a challenge and the opportunity to reach their full career potential.

However, not all people are driven by the same needs - at any time different people may be motivated by entirely different factors. It is important to understand the needs being pursued by each employee. To motivate an employee, the manager must be able to recognize the needs level at which the employee is operating, and use those needs as levers of motivation.

Maslow's Theory - Limitations and Criticism

Though Maslow's hierarchy makes sense intuitively, little evidence supports its strict hierarchy. Actually, recent research challenges the order that the needs are imposed by Maslow's pyramid. As an example, in some cultures, social needs are placed more fundamentally than any others. Further, Maslow's hierarchy fails to explain the "starving artist" scenario, in which the aesthetic neglects their physical needs to pursuit of aesthetic or spiritual goals. Additionally, little evidence suggests that people satisfy exclusively one motivating need at a time, other than situations where needs conflict.
While scientific support fails to reinforce Maslow's hierarchy, his thery is very popular, being the introductory motivation theory for many students and managers, worldwide. To handle a number of the issues of present in the Needs Hierarchy, Clayton Alderfer devised the ERG theory, a consistent needs-based model that aligns more accurately with scientific research.

Applying Maslow's Needs Hierarchy - Business Management Implications

If Maslow's theory is true, there are some very important leadership implications to enhance workplace motivation. There are staff motivation opportunities by motivating each employee through their style of management, compensation plans, role definition, and company activities.

• Physiological Motivation: Provide ample breaks for lunch and recuperation and pay salaries that allow workers to buy life's essentials.
• Safety Needs: Provide a working environment which is safe, relative job security, and freedom from threats.
• Social Needs: Generate a feeling of acceptance, belonging, and community by reinforcing team dynamics.
• Esteem Motivators: Recognize achievements, assign important projects, and provide status to make employees feel valued and appreciated.
• Self-Actualization: Offer challenging and meaningful work assignments which enable innovation, creativity, and progress according to long-term goals.

Remember, everyone is not motivated by same needs.  At various points in their lives and careers, various employees will be motivated by completely different needs. It is imperative that you recognize each employee's needs currently being pursued. In order to motivate their employees, leadership must be understand the current level of needs at which the employee finds themselves, and leverage needs for workplace motivation.

10 Marketing Trends for 2011

From geotargeting to mobile apps and social media, here's what you need to consider now. 

As the global economy struggles to correct itself, and social-media marketing becomes a strategic imperative, small businesses will have exciting opportunities to expand in new directions this year.

The need for trust, value and brand transparency, among other trends from last year, are just as important today. But the current shift to geotargeting, mobile marketing and online reputation management require that small businesses modify their plans to surpass competitors.

Here are 10 marketing trends that small businesses should incorporate now to be positioned for success from the start.

Building reliable brand advocates. The idea that you need tens of thousands of Twitter followers, blog subscribers, LinkedIn connections and Facebook friends to build your business via social media is dead. Quality connections with those who are loyal to the business and the brand are far more helpful to spread your message than large groups of connections who disappear after the first interaction. Excelling in one area rather than being all things to all people. This will be a year for small businesses to focus on their unique niches and position themselves as the definitive source for information, products and services related to the specific places in the markets where they operate. Creating quality content as a viable marketing tool. Social media marketing and content marketing go hand-in-hand, and this is the year businesses will create useful content that adds value to the online conversation and to people's lives. The Web is a cluttered place. Amazing content is essential to break through the noise. Moving more marketing dollars to social media. Statistics show that large and small companies are shifting budget dollars to social media and other digital marketing initiatives and away from print and radio advertising. Consumers spend more time online than ever and to reach them and stay competitive, small businesses need to have a presence on the social Web. Tracking brand reputations on the social Web in greater detail. Social media has given consumers a large platform to voice their opinions, and small-business owners are realizing the importance of actively monitoring their reputation on the Web. With dashboards and social media aggregators like Hootsuite and Spredfast, it's easier than ever for small businesses to develop, nurture and track their stature online . Increase in branded online experiences to meet diverse consumer needs. Simply having a Twitter account or Facebook page isn't enough this year. Small businesses must surround consumers with branded online destinations such as a blog, LinkedIn profile, YouTube channel, Flickr profile and so on. Consumers can then pick and choose how they want to interact with your brand. Of course, quality trumps quantity, so extending a brand across the social Web must be done strategically to maximize opportunities without compromising content and communications. Pursuing mobile marketing. There is absolutely no doubt this is the year of mobile marketing. While still in its infancy, it is the marketing imperative of the future. With mobile advertising, branded mobile apps and mobile marketing apps like Foursquare, consumers will expect businesses to have a mobile presence in 2011. Geotargeting and localized marketing will become a top priority. Local discount websites like Groupon and local review sites like Yelp make it easy for consumers to find deals and reviews about businesses in their neighborhoods and beyond. Creating targeted, local marketing campaigns using these popular tools will become the norm this year. Accepting that silo marketing is ineffective. Offline, online and mobile marketing initiatives create an opportunity to lead consumers from one message to another by integrating those strategies. You can drive a significantly higher return on investment by cross-promoting branded online destinations, discounts, contests and events. Co-marketing to boost returns and lower marketing costs. The economy is still struggling, which means small businesses can benefit from economies of scale by partnering with complementary businesses to develop co-marketing programs in 2011. Promotional partnerships not only lead to reduced costs but also can lead to increased exposure to new audiences. This year, all businesses will be experimenting with a variety of online, localized and mobile marketing initiatives. Remember, even if you're not leveraging marketing trends and opportunities, your competitors are.

How to Build a Winning Brand

Create your image, get known and give your customers what they want. Just leave the ego at home. 

Of all the startup brands, Starbucks still represents the gold standard.
Starbucks made the mundane act of buying a cup of coffee into an experience. It did so by creating a memorable brand: a unique name and a memorable logo that made coffee not just coffee, but a welcoming, comfortable place to go and be seen.
The Starbucks brand created a culture. Here's a look at how yours can do the same.

Step 1: Craft your image
Creating a brand perception requires intrusion. You are trying to position yourself with people who don't want to change their purchasing decisions. Your brand must be powerful enough to force them out of their routines.
It all starts with a name. With enough frequency of the message, any name can become memorable. That could be a name that explains, like Jiffy Lube or Toys"R"Us. Maybe it's a made-up word or obscure reference,but one with the power to create a lasting emotional connection (think Starbucks again). Obscure brand names are unique from their competition and often become among the most memorable. It could also be a family name, which implies the person behind the brand name has a credibility to be in this business, a pride of workmanship and a moral standard.

Your logo is just as important as your name. The logo is the first visceral connection the consumer makes with the brand. It triggers the brand perception. The first measure of a logo is that it answers questions: Who are you? What do you do? What's in it for me?

There are other practical considerations in logo design:

• It must reproduce well in various sizes and media.
• It should reflect the sensibilities of the target audience.
• Its intention and message should be perfectly clear.
• It should be easily and uniquely recognizable.

At its best, a logo should convey an emotional connection as well as personality. The cleverness in a conceptual logo should get a reaction--an "aha!" --while conveying what you do and capturing the personality of your business.

Step 2: Get Known
Branding happens in the minds of consumers. The promises behind the brand create its appeal, but getting the word out is still what brings in the customers.
Traditional media exposure--advertising, promotion, trade shows, direct marketing, events, directories and even search-engine marketing--costs money, and most startups don't have much. Social media is a great equalizer for the cash-strapped entrepreneur. Here are some fundamental guidelines for building your brand online effectively using Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, blogs and other social media outlets:

• Listen, don't just talk. The days of saying anything that comes to mind or reporting what you're having for dinner are over. Hear the conversation first, then participate.
• Ask, don't tell. The goal is developing an exchange. Force your opinion and you'll end conversations before they begin.
• Be real, and have a story. Behave in the character of the brand. Give the character depth and be genuine.
• Be interesting, and give. Add to the conversation by offering up whatever knowledge you have.
• Be interested, and respond. Hear a person's need, then share expertise in a personal way that has no motivation other than to help.
• Have a payoff, and say thank you. Reward your followers with something special and exclusive. Appreciate them for following your brand and letting you into their world.

Step 3: Know What the Customer Wants
In launching a business with limited funding, the potential for successfully establishing a brand is far too often based on the zeal of the entrepreneur's belief in the disruptiveness of the unique business idea rather than market intelligence. That doesn't usually work.
To increase your brand's chances for success, you need to know five things:

• How strong is the perception of your brand, and what would make it stronger?
• What is the true level of consumer satisfaction for competitor brands?
• Will your brand introduce emotional connections with consumers who do not currently exist in the market segment?
• What percent of the market will consider change because of the disruptiveness of your product?
• How much awareness can you gain for the brand?

The answers to those five questions will determine your chances for successfully branding your product. There are various methods for conducting consumer research, like focus groups and e-mail surveys, that determine what would make a consumer recommend your brand to a friend. If cost is a crippling concern, you must at least go out into the market, observe consumer behavior over a relevant period of time and keep tallies of each type of consumer behavior.
To succeed, you need to know what is the true perception of your brand, how many people hate it, how many it appeals to strongly enough that they would advocate for it and how that acceptance stacks up against the competition. The most successful companies pick a competitive position from which they know their brands can win.

Brand Win: Go Daddy
Branding experts groan every time they see a Go Daddy Girl in a tight white tank top appear on their TV screens, which happens between 500 and 900 times a week on cable. The company's edgy branding strategy has little to do with the very unsexy business of domain registration and website hosting, and Go Daddy acknowledges that its suggestive marketing alienates part of its potential customer base.
But it's hard to argue with the results. In 2005, the company had 16 percent of the new domain name market. After Go Daddy aired its first Super Bowl commercial that year spoofing Janet Jackson's wardrobe malfunction in the previous Super Bowl, its share jumped to 25 percent within weeks. Six years later, Go Daddy owns more than 50 percent of the market of new domain names, and the company is a household name--even if a big chunk of people still don't know exactly what it does.
"It sounds so simple, but if something works, I keep doing it, and when it doesn't work, I stop," says Bob Parsons, Go Daddy's founder and CEO, and the brains behind the brand strategy. "The edgier the brand is, the better it works. The point is to keep it fun."
In reality, though, Go Daddy's branding--including the unusual name and the child-like logo of a man with sunglasses and a star on his head--is classic advertising. It creates curiosity and promotes name recognition, something most tech services have never done well. But what really defines the company's success is what customers discover once they are enticed to learn more.
"None of this stuff with branding is going to work if you can't deliver," says Parsons, noting that of the 3,000 people on the payroll, 1,800 work in customer service. "We provide the best service of anyone in the world. We even call customers to thank them for $10 purchases."
Go Daddy has tried other advertising routes, including one appealing to busy moms and another touting its U.S.-based call centers. Neither pushed people to the site like the edgier Go Daddy Girl commercials, which this year feature NASCAR's Danica Patrick and fitness guru Jillian Michaels. Parsons says when the provocative advertising stops working, he'll try something different. Until then, his girls will keep teasing NFL fans and late-night cable watchers.
"We've taken domains and websites, which is about as exciting as a cup of sawdust," Parsons says, "and made people pay attention."

Brand Fail: Fit Fuel
In 2006, major magazines were featuring Sean Kelly and Luke Burgis as two of America's entrepreneurial wunderkinds. The duo's business, Fit Fuel, was on the fast track to becoming the next big online retailer. But by 2009, the next big brand in fitness was no longer even a brand. Somewhere between the accolades and fast growth, the company lost its way, and a big piece of the downfall was bad branding.
Fit Fuel was conceived as a service to help vending machine companies stock their slots with healthy choices instead of chips and soda. But soon after launch, Kelly and Burgis realized the majority of their customers were not other businesses, but regular Joes looking for good prices on PowerBars and trail mix. They ran with it, reshaping the company into a fitness product e-tailer. Growth was exponential, bringing in $5 million per year at its height, and in 2007 they moved to a giant warehouse in Las Vegas and jumped from five employees to 20.
That ramp-up proved to be the downfall. Fit Fuel was shifting from selling nutrition products to stocking all things fitness, including books, exercise equipment, apparel and sexual enhancement products. "We were like the Amazon.com of fitness," Burgis says. "But people were confused about who we were, and we didn't have capital. We couldn't survive a price war."
In 2008, Sean Kelly left Fit Fuel to focus on the healthy vending machine concept, and Burgis was left to figure out the company's direction. He started modeling his business on shoe e-tailer Zappos, thinking a hip, service-oriented company culture could define his brand. Burgis renegotiated his contracts so they could offer two-day shipping. Customer service was impeccable. But it didn't resonate with shoppers.
"It was what I wanted the company to be, not what customers wanted," he says. "We put our marketing energy into the wrong things, and we were carrying way too many products."
By mid-2009, after failed takeover negotiations with Zappos the year before, Burgis declared bankruptcy, and Fit Fuel was shuttered. But the experience didn't go to waste. Now at his new venture ActivPrayer, a company that trains coaches to run Christian-focused group fitness classes, Burgis is very keen on what his customers want, and the brand lines up with his strengths.
"Customers are very interested in who we are and in how we do business," Burgis says. "At Fit Fuel, they just wanted their product in a reasonable amount of time. They didn't care if I was a good guy or not."